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(2017) 198:4012–24. were the first to demonstrate that ID administration of protamine-complexed non-replicating sequence-optimized mRNA vaccines encoding influenza HA was protective in mice upon homologous challenge with influenza H1N1, H3N2, and H5N1 and was immunogenic in ferrets and pigs (124). Ther Deliv. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). While it seems unlikely that a single technology will be able to provide a solution for each future outbreak situation, the combination of present knowledge, ongoing development and the growing understanding of human immunology can provide tools to successfully combat emerging global threats. 115. doi: 10.3390/vaccines3020429, 19. (2005) 12:1054–63. As mRNA vaccines do not interact with the host-cell DNA, they avoid the potential risk of genomic integration posed by DNA-based vaccines. Backert L, Wuerzner G, Bukreyev a De Gregorio E. vaccines, new opportunities for risk/benefit. 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